Most Iranians are Muslims. Around 89%[1] belong to Shi'a branch of Islam, the official state religion, and about 9% belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim religious minorities, including Bahá'ís, Mandeans, Yarsanis, Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians.[2] The latter three minority religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the Iran parliament. Zoroastrianism was once the majority religion, though today Zoroastrians number only in the tens of thousands.[3] Iran is home to the largest Jewish community in Muslim World.[4][5] The Bahá'í Faith, Iran's largest non-Muslim religious minority, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran.[6][7][8]
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Islam does not have a mechanism for the Separation of church and state and has been the official religion and part of the governments of Iran since the Islamic conquest of Iran circa 640 AD.[9] It took another few hundred years for Shi'a Islam to gather and become a religious and political power in Iran. In the history of Shi'a Islam the first Shia state was Idrisid dynasty (780-974) in Maghreb, a region of north west Africa. Then the Alavids dynasty (864 - 928AD) became established in Mazandaran (Tabaristan), in northern Iran. The Alavids were of the Zaidiyyah Shi'a (sometimes called "Fiver".)[10] These dynasties were local. But they were followed by two great and powerful dynasties: Fatimid Caliphate which formed in Ifriqiya in 909 AD and the Buyid dynasty emerged in Daylaman, in north central Iran, about 930 AD and then extended rule over central and western Iran and into Iraq until 1048 AD. The Buyid were also Zaidiyyah Shi'a. Later Sunni Islam came to rule from the Ghaznavids dynasty, 975 to 1187AD, through to the Mongol invasion and establishment of the Ilkhanate which kept Shi'a Islam out of power until the Mongol ruler Ghazan converted to Shi'a Islam in 1310 AD and made it the state religion.[11]
Although Shi'as have lived in Iran since the earliest days of Islam, and there had been Shi'a dynasties in parts of Iran during the 10th and 11th centuries, according to Mortaza Motahhari the majority of Iranian scholars and masses remained Sunni till the time of the Safavids.[12]
However, there are four high points in the history of Shi'a in Iran that expanded this linkage:
In 1501, the Safavid dynasty established Twelver Shia Islam as the official state religion of Iran.[14] In particular after Ismail I captured Tabriz in 1501 and established Safavids dynasty, he proclaimed Twelver Shiʿism as the state religion, ordering conversion of the Sunnis. As most of his subjects were Sunni he enforced official Shi'ism violently, putting to death those who opposed him. Thousands were killed in subsequent purges. In some cases entire towns were eliminated because they were not willing to convert from Sunni Islam to Shi'ite Islam.[15] Ismail brought Arab Shi'a clerics from Bahrain, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon in order to preach the Shi'a faith.[16] Isma'il's attempt to spread Shi'ite propaganda among the Turkmen tribes of eastern Anatolia prompted a conflict with the Sunnite Ottoman Empire. Following Iran's defeat by the Ottomans at the Battle of Chaldiran, Safavid expansion fasted, and a process of consolidation began in which Isma'il sought to quell the more extreme expressions of faith among his followers.[17] While Ismail I declared shiism as the official state religion, it was in fact his successor, Tahmasb, who consolidated the Safavid rule and spread Shiʿism in Iran. After a period of indulgence in wine and the pleasures of the harem, he turned pious and parsimonious, observing all the Shiʿite rites and enforcing them as far as possible on his entourage and subjects.[15] Under Abbas I, Iran prospered. Succeeding Safavid rulers promoted Shi'a Islam among the elites, and it was only under Mullah Allamah al-Majlis - court cleric from 1680 until 1698- that Shi'a Islam truly took hold among the masses.[18]
Then there were successive dynasties in Iran - the Afsharid dynasty (1736–1796 AD) (which mixed Shi'a and Sunni), Zand dynasty (1750–1794 AD) (which was Twelver Shi'a Islam), the Qajar dynasty (1794–1925 AD) (again Twelver). There was a brief Iranian Constitutional Revolution in 1905-11 in which the progressive religious and liberal forces rebelled against theocratic rulers in government [19] who were also associated with European colonialization and their interests in the new Anglo-Persian Oil Company.The secularist efforts ultimately succeeded in the Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979 AD). The 1953 Iranian coup d'état was orchestrated by Western powers[20] which created a backlash against Western powers in Iran, and was among the background and causes of the Iranian Revolution to the creation of the Islamic republic.
From the Islamization in Iran the cultural and religious expression of Iran participated in the Islamic Golden Age from the 9th through the 13th centuries AD, for 400 years.[21] This period was across Shi'a and Sunni dynasties through to the Mongol governance. Iran participated with its own scientists and scholars. Additionally the most important scholars of almost all of the Islamic sects and schools of thought were Persian or lived in Iran including most notable and reliable Hadith collectors of Shia and Sunni like Shaikh Saduq, Shaikh Kulainy, Muhammad al-Bukhari, Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj and Hakim al-Nishaburi, the greatest theologians of Shi'a and Sunni like Shaykh Tusi, Al-Ghazali, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi and Al-Zamakhshari, the greatest Islamic physicians, astronomers, logicians, mathematicians, metaphysicians, philosophers and scientists like Al-Farabi and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, the Shaykhs of Sufism like Rumi, Abdul-Qadir Gilani - all these were in Iran or from Iran.[22] And there were poets like Hafiz who wrote extensively in religious themes. Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna in the west, was a polymath and the foremost Islamic physician and philosopher of his time.[23] Hafiz was the most celebrated Persian lyric poet and is often described as a poet's poet. Mowlānā Rumi's importance transcends national and ethnic borders even today.[24] Readers of the Persian language in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan see him as one of their most significant classical poets and an influence on many poets through history.[25] In addition to individuals, whole institutions arose - Nizamiyyas were the medieval institutions of Islamic higher education established by Nizam al-Mulk in the 11th century. These were the first well-organized universities in the Muslim world. The most famous and celebrated of all the nizamiyyah schools was Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad (established 1065), where Nizam al-Mulk appointed the distinguished pilosopher and theologian, al-Ghazali, as a professor. Other Nizamiyyah schools were located in Nishapur, Balkh, Herat and Isfahan.
While the dynasties avowed either Shi'a or Sunni, and institutions and individuals claimed either Sunni or Shi'a affiliations, Shi'a - Sunni relations were part of Islam in Iran and continue today when Ayatollah Khomeini also called for unity between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims.
Today Islam is the religion of 98% of Iranians of which approximately 89% are Shi'a - almost all of whom are Twelvers.[26] The next largest Shi'a group are the Nizari Ismailism Shi'a, sometimes called Seveners, some of whom fled Iran to South Asia, especially Mumbai, in the 1840s after a failed coup against the Shah of the Qajar dynasty.[27] Many still remain scattered throughout Iran,The Shi'a groups have distinctions between Fiver, Sevener and Twelver, derived from their belief in how many divinely ordained leaders there were who are descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah and his son-in-law ‘Alī. These Imams are considered the best source of knowledge about the Qur'an and Islam, the most trusted carriers and protectors of Muḥammad's Sunnah (habit or usual practice) and the most worthy of emulation. In addition to the lineage of Imams, Twelvers have their preferred hadith collections - The Four Books - which are narrations regarded by Muslims as important tools for understanding the Quran and in matters of jurisprudence. For Twelvers the lineage of Imams are known as the Twelve Imāms. Of these Imams, only one is buried in Iran - at the Imam Reza shrine, for Ali ar-Ridha who lived from 765 - 818 AD, before any Shi'a dynasties arose in Iran. The last Imam recognized by Twelvers, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was born in 868 AD as the Alavids spread their rule in Iran while in conflict with Al-Mu'tamid, the Abbasid Caliph at the time. Several Imams are buried in Iraq, as sites of pilgrimage, and the rest are in Saudi Arabia. In addition two of the Five Martyrs of Shia Islam have connections to Iran - Shahid Thani (1506–1558) lived in Iran later in life, and Qazi Nurullah Shustari (1549–1610) was born in Iran. The predominant school of theology, practice, and jurisprudence (Madh'hab) in Shi'a Islam is Jafari established by Ja'far as-Sadiq.[28]
Sunni Muslims are second largest religious group in Iran[29] Specifically Sunni Islam came to rule in Iran after the period Sunni were distinguished from Shi'a through the Ghaznavids from 975 AD, followed by the Great Seljuq Empire and the Khwārazm-Shāh dynasty until the Mongol invasion of Iran. Islam returned to rule when Ghazan converted but he soon converted specifically to Shi'a.
In recent times about 9%[1] of the Iranian population are Sunni Muslims - mostly Turkomen, a minority of Arabs (mainly in Hormozgan Province), Baluchs, and Kurds living in the southwest, southeast, northeast and northwest.[30]
The predominant school of theology and jurisprudence (Madh'hab) among Sunni in Iran is Hanafi established by Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man.
The Safaviya sufi order, originates during the circa Safavid dynasty circa 700AD. A later order in Persia is the Chishti. The Nimatullahi are the largest Shi'i Sufi order active throughout Iran and there is the Naqshbandi, a Sunni order active mostly in the Kurdish regions of Iran. The Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi order is the largest Iranian Sufi order which currently operates outside of Iran.
Famous Sufis include al-Farabi, al-Ghazali, Jalāl-ad-Dīn Rūmī and Hafiz. Rumi's two major works, Dīwān-e Šams and Maṭnawīye Ma'nawī, are considered by some to be the greatest works of Sufi mysticism and literature.
Since the 1979 Revolution, Sufi practices have been repressed by the Islamic Republic, forcing some Sufi leaders into exile.[31][32]
While no official statistics are available for Sufi groups, there are reports that estimate their population between two and five million.[29]
There are several major religious minorities in Iran, Bahá'ís (est. 300,000-350,000)[3][33][34] and Christians (est. 300,000,[3] with one group composing over 200,000[35]) being the largest. Smaller groups include Jews, Zoroastrians, Mandaeans, Yarsan (Ahl-e Haqq), as well as local religions practiced by tribal minorities.[29][36]
Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians are officially recognized and protected by the government. For example, shortly after his return from exile in 1979, at a time of great unrest, the revolution's leader, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini issued a fatwa ordering that Jews and other minorities be treated well.[4][37]
The constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran recognizes Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism as official religions. Article 13 of the Iranian Constitution, recognizes them as People of the Book and they are granted the right to exercise religious freedom in Iran.[33][38] Five of the 270 seats in parliament are reserved for these three religions.
On the other hand, senior government posts are reserved for Muslims. All minority religious groups, including Sunni Muslims, are barred from being elected president. Jewish, Christian and Zoroastrian schools must be run by Muslim principals.[39] Compensation for death paid to the family of a non-Muslim was (by law) less than if the victim was a Muslim. Conversion to Islam is encouraged by entitling converts to inherit the entire share of their parents' (or even uncle's) estate if their siblings (or cousins) remain non-Muslim.[40] Iran's non-Muslim population has fallen dramatically. For example, the Jewish population in Iran dropped from 80,000 to 30,000 in the first two decades of the revolution.[41]
After the Persian Constitutional Revolution, the Constitution of 1906 provided for reserved Parliamentary seats granted to the recognized religious minorities, a provision maintained after the 1979 Iranian Revolution. There are 2 seats for Armenians and one for each other minority: Assyrians, Jews and Zoroastrians.[33] Given that the Bahá'í Faith is not recognized, they do not have seats in the parliament.[42] Sunni Muslims have no specific reserved seats, but can take part in the ordinary election process at all constitutional levels.[29] Sunni members of parliament are mostly from areas with strong Sunni ethnic minorities like Kurdistan and Baluchistan.[29]
List of minority MPs in the last three Majlis:
| Armenians | Assyrian | Jewish | Zoroastrian | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1992 | unknown | unknown | unknown | Parviz Ravani |
| 1996 | Vartan Vartanian, Artavaz Baghumian | Shamshoon Maqsudpour Sir | Manuchehr Eliasi | Parviz Ravani |
| 2000 | Levon Davidian, Georgik Abrahamian | Younatan Betkolia Googtapeh | Maurice Motamed | Khosrow Dabestani |
| 2004 | Gevork Vartan, Robert Beglarian | Younatan Betkolia Googtapeh | Maurice Motamed | Kourosh Niknam |
| 2008 | Gevork Vartan, Robert Beglarian | Younatan Betkolia Googtapeh[43] | Siamak Morsadegh | Esfandiyar Ekhtiyari |
The Bahá'í Faith, Iran's largest non-Muslim religious minority, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran.[6][7][8][44][45] Since the 1979 revolution the persecution of Bahá'ís has increased with oppression, the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education and employment.[6][42][44][45][46] There were an estimated 350,000 Bahá'ís in Iran in 1986.[42] The Bahá'ís are scattered in small communities throughout Iran with a heavy concentration in Tehran. Most Bahá'ís are urban, but there are some Bahá'í villages, especially in Fars and Mazandaran. The majority of Bahá'ís are Persians, but there is a significant minority of Azarbaijani Bahá'ís, and there are even a few among the Kurds. Bahá'ís are neither recognized nor protected by the Iranian constitution.
The Bahá'í Faith originated in Iran during the 1840s as a messianic movement out of Shia Islam. Opposition arose quickly, and Amir Kabir, as prime-minister, regarded the ordered the Bábis as a threat and ordered the execution of the founder of the movement, the Báb and killing of many Babis.[47] As another example two prominent Bahá'ís were arrested and executed circa 1880 because the Imám-Jum'ih at the time owed them a large sum of money for business relations and instead of paying them he confiscated their property and brought public ridicule upon them as being Bahá'ís.[48] Their execution was committed despite observers testifying to their innocence.
The Shia clergy, as well as many Iranians, have continued to regard Bahá'ís as heretics, and consequently Bahá'ís have encountered much prejudice and have sometimes been the objects of persecution. The situation of the Bahá'ís improved under the Pahlavi shahs when the government actively sought to secularize public life however there were still organizations actively persecuting the Bahá'ís in addition to there being curses children would learn decrying the Báb and Bahá'ís.[49] The Hojjatieh was a semi-clandestine traditionalist Shia organization founded by Muslim clerics[49] on the premise that the most immediate threat to Islam was the Bahá'í Faith.[50] In March to June 1955, the Ramadan period that year, a widespread systematic program was undertaken cooperatively by the government and the clergy. During the period they destroyed the national Bahá'í Center in Tehran, confiscated properties and made it illegal for a time to be Bahá'í (punishable by 2 to 10 year prison term.)[51] Founder of SAVAK, Teymur Bakhtiar, took a pick-ax to a Bahá'í building himself at the time.[52]
The social situation of the Bahá'ís was drastically altered after the 1979 revolution. The Hojjatieh group flourished during the 1979 revolution but was forced dissolve after Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini speech on 12 August 1983. However there are signs of it reforming circa 2002-4.[52] Beyond the Hojjatieh group, the Islamic Republic does not recognize the Bahá'ís as a religious minority, and they have been officially persecuted, "some 200 of whom have been executed and the rest forced to convert or subjected to the most horrendous disabilities." [53] Starting in late 1979 the new government systematically targeted the leadership of the Bahá'í community by focusing on the Bahá'í National Spiritual Assembly (NSA) and Local Spiritual Assemblies (LSAs); prominent members of NSAs and LSAs were either killed or disappeared.[42] Like most conservative Muslims, Khomeini believed them to be apostates, for example issuing a fatwa stating:
It is not acceptable that a tributary [non-Muslim who pays tribute] changes his religion to another religion not recognized by the followers of the previous religion. For example, from the Jews who become Bahai's nothing is accepted except Islam or execution.[54]
and emphasized that the Bahá'ís would not receive any religious rights, since he believed that the Bahá'ís were a political rather than religious movement.[55][56]
the Baha'is are not a sect but a party, which was previously supported by Britain and now the United States. The Baha'is are also spies just like the Tudeh [Communist Party].[57]
Allegations of Bahá'í involvement with other powers have long been repeated in many venues including denunciations from the president.[58][59]
During the drafting of the new constitution the wording intentionally excluded the Bahá'ís from protection as a religious minority.[60] More recently, documentation has been provided that shows governmental intent to destroy the Bahá'í community. The government has intensified propaganda and hate speech against Bahá'ís through the Iranian media; Bahá'ís are often attacked and dehumanized on political, religious, and social grounds to separate Bahá'ís from the rest of society.[61] According to Eliz Sanasarian "Of all non-Muslim religious minorities the persecution of the Bahais has been the most widespread, systematic, and uninterrupted.… In contrast to other non-Muslim minorities, the Bahais have been spread throughout the country in villages, small towns, and various cities, fueling the paranoia of the prejudiced."[58]
Since the 1979 revolution, the authorities have destroyed most or all of the Baha'i holy places in Iran, including the House of the Bab in Shiraz, a house in Tehran where Bahá'u'lláh was brought up, and other sites connected to aspects of Babi and Baha'i history. These demolitions have sometimes been followed by the construction of mosques in a deliberate act of triumphalism.
Christianity in Iran has had a long history, dating back to the very early years of the faith. And the region is thought to have affected Christianity as well with perhaps the introduction of the concept of The Devil.[62] There are some very old churches in Iran - perhaps the oldest and largest is Tatavous Vank ( St. Tatavous Cathedral), which is also called the Ghara Kelissa (the black monastery) south of Makou.[63] By far the largest group of Christians in Iran are Armenians under the Armenian Apostolic Church composing over 200,000[35] of the estimated almost 300,000 Christians. There are hundreds of Christian churches in Iran.[64] The Armenian church is organized under Archbishop Manukian since at least the 1980s.[35][58] Unofficial estimates for the Assyrian Christian population range between 10,000 and 20,000. Christian groups outside the country estimate the size of the Protestant Christian community to be fewer than 10,000, although many may practice in secret.[29] There are approximately 20,000 Christians Iranian citizens abroad who left after the 1979 revolution.[65] Christianity has always been a minority religion, overshadowed by the majority state religions—Zoroastrianism in the past, and Shia Islam today. Christians of Iran have played a significant part in the history of Christian mission. While always a minority the Armenian Christians have had an autonomy of educational institutions such as the use of their language in schools.[58] The Government regards the Mandaeans as Christians, and they are included among the three recognized religious minorities; however, Mandaeans do not consider themselves Christians.[29]
The small evangelical Protestants Christian minority in Iran have been subject to Islamic "government suspicion and hostility" according to Human Rights Watch at least in part because of their "readiness to accept and even seek out Muslim converts" as well as their Western origins. In the 1990s, two Muslim converts to Christianity who had become ministers were sentenced to death for apostasy and other charges.[66] An Assyrian Pentecostal Church in Tehran was closed and there were more than 50 documented arrests of Iranian Muslim converts to evangelical Christianity in 2008.[67] There still have not been any reported executions of apostates, but see the current Youcef Nadarkhani case.
See Persecution of Zoroastrians
Zoroastrians in Iran have had a long history reaching back thousands of years, and is the oldest religious community of Iran to survive to the present-day. Prior to the Muslim Arab invasion of Persia (Iran), Zoroastrianism had been the primary religion of Iranian people. Zoroastrians mainly are ethnic Persians and are concentrated in the cities of Tehran, Kerman, and Yazd. The Islamic Republic government estimates the number of Zoroastrian is 20,000, Zoroastrian groups in Iran say their number is approximately 60,000.[3]
Since the fall of the Sassanid Zoroastrian empire by the Arab conquest of Persia, in different periods of post-Islamic history of Iran, Zoroastrians have periodically faced extreme religious oppression including forced conversions, massacres, harassment, and other forms of discrimination.
This oppression has led to a massive diaspora community across the world, in particular the Parsis of India, who number significantly higher than the Zoroastrians in Iran.
Judaism is one of the oldest religions practiced in Iran and dates back to the late biblical times. The biblical books of Isaiah, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, and Esther contain references to the life and experiences of Jews in Persia.
Iran supports by far the largest Jewish population of any Muslim country.[4] The current Jewish population of Iran is estimated by most sources to be 25,000,[68][69][70][71] though estimates vary, as low as 11,000 [72] and as high as 40,000.[73] Emigration has lowered the population of 75,000 to 80,000 Jews living in Iran prior to the 1979 Islamic revolution.[3] According to The world Jewish Library, most Jews in Iran live in Tehran, Isfahan (3,000), and Shiraz. BBC reported Yazd is home to ten Jewish families, six of them related by marriage, however some estimate the number is much higher. Historically, Jews maintained a presence in many more Iranian cities.
Today, the largest groups of Jews from Iran are found in the United States which is home to approximately 100,000 Iranian Jews, who have settled especially in the Los Angeles area and New York area.[74] Israel is home to 75,000 Iranian Jews, including second-generation Israelis[75]
Hinduism in Iran has a history stretching back to the Middle Ages.[76] Out of Iran's population of 68,017,860, about 68,000 are thought to be Hindus.[77] Prior to the Iranian Revolution of 1979, many Hindu-based missions such as the International Society for Krishna Consciousness and Transcendental meditation, had locations in Iran. A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada traveled to Tehran in March 1975 and August 1976. After 1979, these locations have been abandoned.
Iran is an Islamic republic and its constitution mandates that the official religion of Iran is Islam (see: Islam in Iran) and the Twelver Ja'fari school. The constitution also mandates that other Islamic schools be accorded full respect, and that their followers are free to act in accordance with their own jurisprudence in performing their religious rites and recognizes Zoroastrian, Jewish, and Christian Iranians as religious minorities.
Complaints about religious freedom in Iran revolve around the alleged persecution of the Bahá'í Faith (which is headquartered and from Israel) unequal rights of non-Muslim religions, and the forbidding of conversion from Islam to other religions. The Bahá'í Faith is not recognized and is claimed by some to be persecuted.[46] There have been reports of imprisonment, harassment, intimidation, discrimination, and murder based on religious beliefs.[78]
Hudud statutes grant different punishments to Muslims and non-Muslims for the same crime. In the case of adultery, for example, a Muslim man who is convicted of committing adultery with a Muslim woman receives 100 lashes; the sentence for a non-Muslim man convicted of adultery with a Muslim woman is death.[79] In 2004, inequality of "blood money" (diyeh) was eliminated, and the amount paid by a perpetrator for the death or wounding a Christian, Jew, or Zoroastrian man, was made the same as that for a Muslim. However, the International Religious Freedom Report reports that Baha'is were not included in the provision and their blood is considered Mobah, (i.e. it can be spilled with impunity).[3]
Freedom to convert from Islam to another religion (apostasy), is prohibited and may be punishable by death. Article 23 of the constitution states, "the investigation of individuals' beliefs is forbidden, and no one may be molested or taken to task simply for holding a certain belief." But another article, 167, gives judges the discretion "to deliver his judgment on the basis of authoritative Islamic sources and authentic fatwa (rulings issued by qualified clerical jurists)." The founder of the Islamic Republic, Islamic cleric Ruhollah Khomeini, who was a grand Ayatollah, ruled "that the penalty for conversion from Islam, or apostasy, is death."[80]
At least two Iranians - Hashem Aghajari and Hassan Yousefi Eshkevari - have been arrested and charged with apostasy (though not executed), not for converting to another faith but for statements and/or activities deemed by courts of the Islamic Republic to be in violation of Islam, and that appear to outsiders to be Islamic reformist political expression.[81] Hashem Aghajari, was found guilty of apostasy for a speech urging Iranians to "not blindly follow" Islamic clerics;[82] Hassan Youssefi Eshkevari was charged with apostasy for attending the 'Iran After the Elections' Conference in Berlin Germany which was disrupted by anti-regime demonstrators.[83]
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies.